, particularly with how the divine and human are related in his person. Christology is generally less concerned with the details of Jesus' life than with how the
co-exist in one person. Although this study of the inter-relationship of these two natures is the foundation of Christology, some essential sub-topics within the field of Christology include:
. However, from a Christian perspective, these questions are concerned with how the divine persons relate to one another, whereas Christology is concerned with the meeting of the human and divine in the person of
.
, Christological questions have been very important in the life of the church. Christology was a fundamental concern from the
). In this time period, the Christological views of various groups within the broader Christian community led to accusations of
. In some cases, a sect's unique Christology is its chief distinctive feature; in these cases it is common for the sect to be known by the name given to its Christology.
).
Main articles: Chalcedonian and Hypostatic union Chalcedonian Christology Historical controversies At a very early stage, various
Docetic groups arose which denied the humanity of Jesus. Docetic teaching was attacked by
St. Ignatius of Antioch (early second century), and appears to be targeted in the canonical
epistles of John (late first century). The
gnostic sects which flourished in the second century AD tended to have docetic theologies.
Docetism (from the Greek verb "to seem") taught that Jesus was fully divine, and his human body was only illusory.
The Council of Nicaea rejected theologies that entirely denied the humanity of Christ, affirming in the
Nicene Creed the doctrine of the
Incarnation as a part of the doctrine of the
Trinity. That is, that the second person of the Trinity became incarnate in the person
Jesus and was fully human.
Denial of Christ's human nature In the early centuries of Christian history, various groups denied the divinity of Jesus. The
Adoptionists taught that Jesus was born fully human, and was adopted as God's Son because of the life he lived. Another group, known as the
Ebionites, taught that Jesus was not God, but the human
Moshiach (messiah, anointed) prophet promised in the
Old Testament.
Arianism affirmed that Jesus was divine, but taught that he was nevertheless a created being ("there was when he was not"), less divine than God the Father.
Some of these views could be described as
Unitarianism (although that is a modern term) in their insistence on the one-ness of God. These views, which directly affected how one understood the Godhead, were declared
heresies by the Council of Nicaea. Throughout much of the rest of the ancient history of Christianity, Christologies that denied Christ's divinity ceased to have a major impact on the life of the church.
In the modern era, a number of denominations have rejected the Nicene doctrine of the Trinity, including the
Christadelphians and the
Jehovah's Witnesses. Mainstream Christian churches usually regard these groups as modern versions of the
Arian heresy.
Denial of Christ's divine nature The Christological debates following the Council of Nicaea sought to make sense of the interplay of the human and divine in the person of Christ while upholding the doctrine of the Trinity.
Apollinaris of Laodicea (310-390) taught that in Jesus, God the Son took the place of the human mind or soul. This however was seen as a denial of Jesus' true humanity, and the view was condemned at the
First Council of Constantinople.
Subsequently,
Nestorius of Constantinople (386-451) initiated a view that effectively separated Jesus into two persons—one divine and one human. Nestorius' theology was deemed heretical at the
First Council of Ephesus (
431). Orthodox Christians (particularly in the West) consider the
Assyrian Church of the East to be the perpetuation of
Nestorianism.
Various forms of
Monophysitism taught that Christ only had one nature; that the divine had either dissolved or merged with the human in the person of Christ. A notable monophysite theologian was
Eutyches (c. 380-456).
Monophysitism was rejected as
heresy at the
Council of Chalcedon in 451, which affirmed that Jesus Christ had two natures (divine and human) joined in one person, in
hypostatic union (see
Chalcedonian creed). The groups who dissented from the Chalcedonian formula have persisted as the
Oriental Orthodox Church.
As theologians continued to search for a compromise between the Chalcedonian definition and the
Monophysites, other Christologies developed that partially rejected the full humanity of Christ.
Monothelitism taught that in the one person of Jesus there were two natures, but only a divine will. Closely related to this is
Monoenergism, which held to the same doctrine as the Monothelites, but with different terminology. These positions were declared
heresy by the
Third Council of Constantinople (the Sixth
Ecumenical Council, 680-681).
The person of Christ Other Christological concerns The controversy concerning the sinlessness of Christ focuses upon the human nature which Christ assumed. The question must be asked if it is possible to be fully human and not be a participant in the "fall" of Adam? Adam and Eve existed in an "unfallen" status before the "fall" according to Genesis 2-3.
Concerning the sinlessness of Christ The sinless nature of Christ involves
two elements according to MacLeod, "First, Christ was free of actual sin."
Kinds of sin The temptation of Christ presented in the gospels affirms that Christ was tempted. Indeed, the temptations were genuine and of a greater intensity than normally experienced by human beings.
The temptation of Christ The communion of attributes (
Communicatio idiomatum) of Christ's divine and human natures is understood according to Chalcedonian theology to mean that they exist together with neither overriding the other. That is, both are preserved and coexist in one person. Christ had
all the properties of God and humanity. God did not stop being God and become man. Christ was not half-God and half-human. The two natures did not mix into a new third kind of nature. Although independent, they acted in complete accord; when one nature acted, so did the other. The natures did not commingle, merge, infuse each other, or replace each other. One was not converted into the other. They remained separate (yet acted with one accord).
Communication of attributes The
kenotic theory states that the
logos laid aside some of God's characteristics when God became human. Typically, omniscience, omnipresence, and omnipotence were laid aside, since these characteristics seem incompatible with being a human. This also attempts to solve the problems when Jesus appears to show incomplete knowledge (Matthew 24:36), presence (Luke 13:33), or ability (John 4:6).
Reformed theology suggests that Jesus put self-imposed limitations on himself. Jesus chose to only be in one place at a time, to limit his power, and to limit his knowledge.
Kenosis See Virgin Birth for a discussion of the literary and historical issues surrounding the doctrine of the Virgin Birth of Christ. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke suggest a virgin birth of Jesus Christ. Some now disregard or even refute this "doctrine" that many
denominations of christianity ascribe to. This section looks at the Christological issues surrounding belief or disbelief in the virgin birth.
A non-virgin birth would seem to require some form of
adoptionism. This is because a human conception and birth would seem to yield a fully human Jesus, with some other mechanism required to make Jesus divine as well.
A non-virgin birth would seem to support the full humanity of Jesus. William Barclay: states, "The supreme problem of the virgin birth is that it does quite undeniably differentiate Jesus from all men; it does leave us with an incomplete incarnation." gives several Christological implications of a virgin birth:
Highlights salvation as a
supernatural act of God rather than an act of human initiative.
Avoids
adoptionism (which is virtually required if a normal birth).
Reinforces the sinlessness of Christ, especially as it relates to Christ being outside the sin of Adam (
original sin).
Virgin Birth Main article: Death and resurrection of Jesus The resurrection of Jesus Work of Christ Jesus Christ, the Mediator of humankind, fulfills the
three offices of Prophet, Priest, and King.
Eusebius of the early church worked out this threefold classification, which
John Calvin developed
The Offices of Christ: "Prophet, Priest, and King" Christ is the mouthpiece of God as the Prophet, speaking and teaching the Word of God, provides a definitive and true exposition of God.
The Word/Logos is Light. As the true Light (
John 1:1-18), Jesus Christ exclusively enlightens humankind in the office of Prophet. Jesus affirmed his
divine identity and ultimate authority, revealing God to humanity, continuing His work into the future as the Light (
Revelation 22:3).
The
Bible refers about the Prophetic nature of
Jesus Christ in the following verses:
John 17:4 "I have glorified thee on earth: I have finished the work which thou gavest me to do."
John 14:24 "These words you hear are not my own; they belong to the Father who sent me."
Act 2:22 "Ye men of Israel, hear these words: Jesus of Nazareth, A man approved of God among you by miracles and wonders and signs, which God did by him in the midst of you, as ye yourselves also know."
Mark 6:4 But Jesus said unto them, A prophet is not without honour, but in his own country, and among his own kin, and in his own house.
Luke 4:43 And he said unto them, I must preach the kingdom of God to other cities also: for therefore am I sent.
Jesus refuted even a remote suggestion of his divinity as it can be seen from the following verses of the Bible:
Mathew 19:16 -17,
Mark 10:17 -19,
Luke 18:18 -20,
Matthew 5:17 -20
Prophet Christ, whom we draw near to in confidence, offered Himself as the sacrifice to humanity as High Priest (
Hebrews 4:14). Old Testament priests declared the will of God, gave the covenant of blessing, and directed the processing of sacrifices. As High Priest, Christ became one with humanity in human weakness, offered prayers to God, chose obedience through suffering, and sympathized with the struggles of humanity.
The atoning death of Christ is at the heart of His work as High Priest. Metaphors are used to describe His death on the cross, such as, "Christ, the Lamb of God, shed His blood on the cross as the sin offering for humankind." Christ made one sin offering as High Priest in contrast to the Old Testament priests who continually offered sacrifices on behalf of humanity. Because of the work of Christ on the cross, humanity has the opportunity to have a living relationship with God. Conversely, the individuals that deny the work of God are described as dead in sin, without God and without hope.
Priest Christ, exalted High Priest, mediates the sin that estranges humankind from the fellowship of God. In turn, He has full rights to reign over the church and world as King. Christ sits at the right hand of God, crowned in glory as "King of kings and Lord of lords."
King Theologians like
Jurgen Moltmann and Walter Kasper have characterized Christologies as anthropological or cosmological. These are also termed 'Christology from below' and 'Christology from above' respectively. An anthropological Christology starts with the human person of Jesus and works from his life and ministry toward what it means for him to be divine; whereas, a cosmological Christology works in the opposite direction. Starting from the eternal Logos, a cosmological Christology works toward his humanity. Theologians typically begin on one side or the other and their choice inevitably colors their resultant Christology. As a starting point these options represent "diverse yet complementary" approaches; each poses its own difficulties. Both Christologies 'from above' and 'from below' must come to terms with the two natures of Christ: human and divine. Just as light can be perceived as a wave or as a particle, so Jesus must be thought in terms of both his divinity and humanity. You cannot talk about "either or" but must talk about "both and".
Approaches to Christology: methodologies Christologies from above start with the Logos, the second Person of the Trinity, establish his eternality, his agency in creation, and his economic Sonship. Jesus' unity with God is established by the Incarnation as the divine Logos assumes a human nature. This approach was common in the early church - e.g., St. Paul and St. John in the Gospels. The attribution of full humanity to Jesus is resolved by stating that the two natures mutually share their properties (a concept termed
communicatio idiomatum).
Cosmological approaches Christologies from below start with the human being Jesus as the representative of the new humanity, not with the pre-existent Logos. Jesus lives an exemplary life, one to which we aspire in religious experience. This form of Christology lends itself to mysticism, and some of its roots go back to emergence of Christ mysticism in the sixth century East, but in the West it flourished between the 11th and 14th centuries. A recent theologian Wolfhart Pannenberg contends that the resurrected Jesus is the "eschatological fulfillment of human destiny to live in nearness to God."
Anthropological approaches The Christian faith is inherently political because allegiance to Jesus as risen Lord relativises all earthly rule and authority. Jesus is called "Lord" over 230 times in Paul's epistles alone, and is thus the principle confession of faith in the Pauline epistles. Further, N.T. Wright argues that this Pauline confession is the core of the gospel of salvation. The Achilles' heal of this approach is the loss of eschatological tension between this present age and the future divine rule that is yet to come. This can happen when the state co-opts Christ's authority as was often the case in imperial Christology. Modern political Christologies seek to overcome imperialist ideologies.
Political approaches Other approaches The doctrine of Perichoresis is the doctrine of how the three Persons of the Trinity are one in their threeness.
Perichoresis is the mutual indwelling or mutual relatedness within the Trinity. Recently Perichoresis has been applied to the two natures, human and divine, of Jesus to help explain how they remain in perfect union yet unconfused, inseparable but not commingled. Further, "perichoretic realities" are considered to be somehow brought down into the world by the Incarnation. Jesus characterizes his relation to his Father in terms of mutual indwelling, "believe Me that I am in the Father, and the Father in Me" (John 14:11). Jesus also suggested that people can participate in these perichoretic realities - "I do not ask in behalf of these alone, but for those also who believe in Me through their word; that they may all be one; even as Thou, Father, art in Me, and I in Thee, that they also may be in Us" (John 17:20-21).
Jesus and social doctrines of the Trinity List of Jesus-related articles New Testament view on Jesus' life Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament Religious perspectives on Jesus Christian views of Jesus Islamic view of Jesus Judaism's view of Jesus
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